English grammar

Adjectives Basics

Adjectives describe people and things. Put them before a noun or after be, and keep the same form for singular and plural.

Adverbs of Frequency

Use adverbs of frequency to say how often something happens. Put them before most verbs, but after be.

Articles: a, an, the

Use a/an for one non-specific singular noun, the for a specific known noun, and no article for general plurals and uncountable nouns.

The — Definite Article

Use the for specific nouns: when both people know which one, when it is the only one, or when you mention it again.

Questions with Be and Have

For yes/no questions with be or auxiliary have, put the auxiliary before the subject: Is she...? Have you...?

Basic SVO Structure

English basic statements usually follow subject + verb + object. Start with who does the action, then the action, then the thing affected.

Be as a Main Verb

Use be as the main verb for identity, age, state, location, and description. Choose am/is/are now and was/were for the past.

Can — Ability

Use can for ability now and could for general ability in the past. After both, use the base verb without to.

Do / Does / Did Support

Use do, does, and did to build negatives, yes/no questions, and short answers. After them, the main verb stays in base form.

Have Got

Use have got / has got to talk about possession and relationships. Build negatives with haven't/hasn't got and questions with Have/Has + subject + got.

Have as a Main Verb

Use have as a main verb for possession, relationships, routines, and experiences. Use has with he/she/it, and use do/does for negatives and questions.

Imperatives

Use the base verb to give instructions, requests, warnings, and commands. Use don't for negative imperatives and let's for suggestions with us.

Irregular Plurals

Some nouns have special plural forms: child → children, man → men. Some stay the same: sheep → sheep, fish → fish.

Negation Basics

Make basic negatives with not after an auxiliary: do not, does not, did not, is not. With do/does/did, the main verb stays in base form.

Object Pronouns

Use me, you, him, her, it, us, them after verbs and prepositions. They show the person or thing that receives the action.

Past Simple

Past Simple talks about finished actions at a clear past time. Use past verb forms in affirmatives and did for most negatives and questions.

Past Time Expressions

Use past time expressions like yesterday, last week, two days ago, and in 2010 for finished time before now. These markers go naturally with Past Simple.

Plural Nouns

Use plural nouns for more than one. Most nouns add -s, some add -es or -ies, and some common nouns change completely.

Possessive Determiners

Use my, your, his, her, its, our, and their before nouns to show who something belongs to: my phone, their house.

Possessive Nouns

Use noun + 's before another noun to show belonging or connection: John's car, the car's engine.

Prepositions of Place

Use in for areas and inside spaces, on for surfaces, and at for points or buildings seen as a location.

Prepositions of Time

Use in for months and years, on for days and dates, and at for exact times and holidays.

Present Continuous

Present Continuous shows actions happening now and temporary situations around now. Build it with am/is/are + verb-ing.

Present Simple

Present Simple talks about habits, routines, and timeless truths. Add -s to the verb after he, she, it; build negatives and questions with do or does.

Sentence Types

English sentences can give information, ask, tell someone to do something, or show strong feeling. The word order and the final mark change with the purpose.

Short Answers

Short answers avoid repeating the full sentence: Yes, I do. No, she doesn't. Use the same auxiliary as the question.

Simple Sentence

A simple sentence has one complete idea: subject + predicate. In basic English statements, put the subject first, then the verb, then any object or extra detail.

Some and Any

Use some in affirmative sentences. Use any in negatives and most questions, but use some in offers and requests.

Subject Pronouns

Use I, you, he, she, it, we, and they as the subject of a verb. Put the pronoun before the verb and match it to the person or thing.

Subject-Verb Agreement

Match the verb to the subject: singular subjects take singular verbs, plural subjects take plural verbs. In the present, she works but the dogs bark.

There is / There are

Use there is / there are to say that something or someone exists in a place. Use is for one, are for more than one.

This, That, These, Those

Use this/these for things near you and that/those for things farther away. This/that are singular; these/those are plural.

Time Expressions

Time expressions show when something happens: routine, now, past, future, day, date, or exact time. Use every, now, yesterday, tomorrow, ago, last, next, in, on, and at carefully.

Wh-Questions

Wh-questions ask for real information, not yes/no. Start with who, what, where, when, why, or how, then use question word order.

Yes/No Questions

Yes/no questions ask for Yes or No. Use Do/Does for present and Did for past, then answer with the matching short form.

A Lot Of and Lots Of

Use a lot of and lots of for large quantities in everyday English. Both work with plural nouns and uncountable nouns.

Ability: Can, Could, Be Able To

Use can for ability now, could for general ability in the past, and be able to in future, perfect, and more formal structures.

Adjective vs Adverb

Use adjectives after be and adverbs with action verbs: She is slow, but she walks slowly. Fast, hard, and late often stay the same.

Adverbs of Degree

Use adverbs of degree like very, quite, rather, extremely, and a bit before adjectives to show intensity.

Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of manner show how an action happens: quickly, carefully, quietly. They often end in -ly and usually come after the verb or after the object.

Advice and Suggestion

Use should or ought to for advice, and Why not ... ? for friendly suggestions. After all three patterns, use the base verb.

Already, Yet, Just, Still

Use just for a moment ago, already for before now, yet in negatives and questions, and still when an expected change has not happened.

Any-Series after Negation

After negative verbs, use any, anyone, anything, and anywhere. Use the same family in questions, if-clauses, and after without for non-specific meaning.

As...As Comparison

Use as...as for equal comparison and not as...as for lower degree. Keep the adjective or adverb in its base form.

Bare Infinitive

Use the base verb without to after modal verbs, make, let, had better, and some perception verbs like see or hear.

Basic Coordination

Use and, but, or, so, and because to join words and clauses. Pick the linker by meaning: extra info, contrast, choice, result, or reason.

Be Able To

Be able to expresses ability in tenses where can does not work. Change be for time, add not for negatives, and move be for questions.

Can and Could — Permission

Use can and could to ask for permission, and can or can't to give or refuse it. Could sounds more polite; the main verb stays in the base form.

Comparative Adjectives

Use comparative adjectives to compare two things: taller, cheaper, more expensive. Short adjectives often take -er; longer ones use more.

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable nouns are separate items you can count: one chair, two chairs. Uncountable nouns are mass nouns like furniture or water and do not normally use a/an or a plural form.

Defining Relative Clauses

Defining relative clauses add essential information after a noun: the man who called, the book that I bought. They identify exactly which person or thing you mean.

Demonstrative Pronouns

Use this, that, these, and those as pronouns when no noun follows. Choose by distance and by one thing or more than one.

Enough

Use enough before nouns and after adjectives. Add to + verb when you say what is possible because the amount or quality is sufficient.

Ever and Never

Use ever in Present Perfect questions about life experience, and never to say something has not happened at any time until now.

First Conditional

First Conditional talks about a real future possibility and its result: If + present, ... will + verb.

For and Since

Use for for a duration and since for a starting point. Both often go with Present Perfect when something began earlier and continues now.

Future Time Expressions

Use future time expressions to show when something happens after now: tomorrow, next week, in two days, soon, by Friday, within an hour.

Verb + Gerund

After some verbs, the next verb takes -ing: enjoy swimming, avoid making, finish working. Do not use to + verb after these verbs.

Gerund after Prepositions

After a preposition, use the verb in -ing form: after eating, without saying, interested in learning, good at cooking.

Going To Future

Going to future talks about plans, intentions, and predictions with present evidence. Use am/is/are + going to + base verb.

Have To — External Obligation

Use have to for obligation from rules, other people, or the situation. Use don't have to for no necessity.

How Questions

Use how much, how many, how long, how often, and how far to ask about amount, number, duration, frequency, and distance.

If vs When for Future Meaning

Use if for a possible condition and when for an expected future time. After both words, use present form, not will.

Indefinite Pronouns

Use someone/something/somewhere in affirmatives, anyone/anything/anywhere in negatives and questions, and nobody/nothing/nowhere for zero.

Infinitive of Purpose

Use to + base verb after an action to say why someone does it: I went to the shop to buy milk.

Verb + To-Infinitive

After many verbs, use to + base verb: want to go, hope to see, decide to stay. After to, the next verb stays in its base form.

It-Constructions

Use it when English needs a subject but there is no real thing to name: It is cold. It takes time. It seems that Anna is busy.

Let's and Imperative Suggestions

Use let's + base verb for suggestions that include both people. Use don't let's for negative suggestions and Shall we ... ? to ask for agreement.

May and Might — Possibility

Use may and might for things that are possible now or later. After both, use the base verb; negatives are may not / might not.

Measure and Container Nouns

Use a measure or container word to count things like advice, water, and bread: a piece of advice, a bottle of water, a slice of bread.

Much and Many

Use many with plural countable nouns and much with uncountable nouns. In questions and negatives, both are common: How many books? How much time?

Must — Strong Obligation

Use must for strong obligation and must not for prohibition. After must, the next verb is always the base form.

Mustn't vs Don't Have To

Use mustn't for prohibition: the action is not allowed. Use don't have to for lack of necessity: the action is optional.

No and None

Use no before a noun, none when the noun is not repeated, and none of before a specific group.

Negative Pronouns

Nobody, nothing, nowhere, and never make a clause negative by themselves. Use one negative word, not two.

Not vs No

Use not with an auxiliary verb: do not know. Use no directly before a noun: no money, no time, no idea.

Nouns of Quantity

Use quantity nouns like a piece of, a glass of, and a pair of to count uncountable nouns and plural-only things.

Obligation vs No Necessity

Use must or have to when an action is necessary. Use don't have to or needn't when it is optional, not forbidden.

Present and Past Passive

Use passive to focus on the thing that gets the action. Present passive = am/is/are + past participle; past passive = was/were + past participle.

Past Continuous

Past Continuous shows an action in progress at a past moment. Build it with was/were + verb + -ing.

Past Simple vs Continuous

Use Past Simple for finished events and Past Continuous for the background action already in progress. In stories, the short event often happens during the longer action.

Permission: Can, May, Could

Use can, could, and may to ask for or give permission. Can is everyday, could is more polite, and may is more formal.

Phrasal Verbs — Basics

A phrasal verb is a verb plus a short word like on, down, or after. Together they make one meaning: turn on, sit down, look after.

Possessive Determiners vs Pronouns

Use my book, her car, their bags before a noun. Use mine, hers, theirs when the noun is not repeated: This book is mine.

Possessive Pronouns

Use mine, yours, his, hers, ours, and theirs to show possession without a noun after them. They often come after be or replace a repeated noun.

Prepositions of Movement

Use these prepositions to show direction and path: to for destination, into/onto for ending place, through/across/along/past for different routes.

Prepositions of Position

Use these prepositions to show where one thing is in relation to another: above, below, beside, between, opposite, next to, and behind.

Present Continuous for Future

Use Present Continuous for future arrangements that are already organized: I am meeting Anna tomorrow. It often comes with a future time phrase.

Present Perfect Simple

Present Perfect links past and present. Use have/has + past participle for life experience and past actions that matter now.

Present Simple for Future

Use Present Simple for future events on a fixed timetable or schedule: The train leaves at 9. The time comes from a program, not a personal decision.

Present Simple vs Continuous

Present Simple talks about habits and permanent situations. Present Continuous talks about actions happening now or temporary situations.

Question Word Order

Standard wh-questions use question word + auxiliary + subject + main verb. If who is the subject, use who + verb.

Reason Clauses

Use because, since, and as to give a reason. Put a full clause after them; if the reason comes first, add a comma before the main clause.

Reflexive Pronouns

Use myself, yourself, himself and similar forms when the subject and object are the same. Use by + self-form for alone, and use a self-form for extra emphasis.

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns connect a noun to extra information: who for people, which for things, that for many everyday clauses, whose for possession, and whom in formal patterns.

Who, Which, and That

Use who for people, which for things, and that for both in defining clauses. These clauses identify exactly which person or thing you mean.

Reported Statements

Reported statements retell what someone said without quotation marks. After a past reporting verb, pronouns, time words, and verb forms often change.

Time and Place Changes in Reported Speech

In reported speech, time and place words often change: today → that day, tomorrow → the next day, here → there.

Say vs Tell

Use say when no listener is named: She said no. Use tell + person when the listener is named: She told me no.

Should and Ought To

Use should and ought to to give advice or recommendations. Use should + base verb; use ought to + base verb.

Stative Verbs

State verbs like know, want, and seem normally use Present Simple, not be + -ing. Use the simple form for knowledge, needs, feelings, and appearance.

Superlative Adjectives

Use superlatives to show the top or bottom item in a group: the tallest, the most expensive. Use -est for many short adjectives and most for many longer ones.

Tense Backshift

In reported speech after a past reporting verb, the tense moves back: present becomes past, and past becomes past perfect.

There Is vs Have

Use there is / there are to say that something exists in a place. Use have / has to say who owns, contains, or includes something.

Time Clauses

Use when, while, after, before, until, and as soon as to connect two actions in time. Put the time clause first or second; use a comma after it when it comes first.

Too and Enough

Use too before an adjective for a problem, and adjective + enough for a sufficient level. Both patterns often continue with to + verb.

Used To

Used to talks about past habits or states that were true before but are not true now. Use used to in affirmatives, but use after did/didn't.

Will Future

Use will + base verb for predictions, quick decisions, offers, and promises. Make negatives with won't and questions with Will + subject.

Will vs Going To

Use going to for earlier plans and predictions from present signs. Use will for decisions made now and predictions based on opinion.

Zero Article

Use zero article with plural, uncountable, and abstract nouns when the meaning is general. Add the when you mean a specific thing or group.

Zero Conditional

Zero Conditional talks about facts, rules, and results that happen every time: If water boils, it evaporates.

Abstract Nouns

Nouns like love, advice, and information are often uncountable in English. Don’t add -s or use a/an; use some, a little, or a piece of.

Addition Connectors

Use addition connectors to add one more idea. Also fits inside a clause; in addition, moreover, and furthermore often introduce a new sentence-level point.

Order of Adjectives

When several adjectives come before a noun, use the common order: opinion, size, age, color, origin, material, then noun.

Adjective + Preposition Collocations

Many adjectives go with a fixed preposition. Learn the full chunk, then add the noun or pronoun after it: interested in music, afraid of dogs.

Adjective Suffixes

Use common suffixes to build adjectives: -ful, -less, -ive, -al, -ous, -able. They help you describe people, things, and situations in the right form.

Adverb Placement

Frequency adverbs go before the main verb but after be. Manner adverbs go after the verb or object, and degree adverbs go before adjectives or adverbs.

All, Both, Neither, Either

Use all for a whole group, both for two together, neither for zero of two, and either for one of two choices.

Another, Other, Others, The Other

Use another for one more singular thing, other for plural or uncountable nouns, others without a noun, and the other for the remaining specific one.

Article vs Zero Article

Use zero article for plural or uncountable nouns in general. Use the when you mean a specific group or a specific thing.

Articles with Geographical Names

Geographical names do not all follow one article rule. Use no article with most countries, but use the with rivers, seas, oceans, ranges, many newspapers, and some institutions.

Articles with Proper Nouns

Most proper names take no article, but some fixed names take the, and a/an can appear when a name means one example of a type.

As Much As / As Many As

Use as much ... as for equal amounts with uncountable nouns, and as many ... as for equal numbers with plural countable nouns.

Emphatic Do

Use do, does, or did before the base verb to add emphasis: I do agree; she did call. This is common in correction, contrast, and strong confirmation.

Be Used To / Get Used To

Be used to = something feels normal. Get used to = the change from new or difficult to normal. After to, use a noun or an -ing form.

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns like team, family, and staff can take a singular or plural verb. Choose by meaning: one group together or the people inside it.

Complex Sentence

A complex sentence has one main clause and one dependent clause. Use linkers like because, when, if, and although to show the relationship.

Compound Nouns

Compound nouns combine words into one noun: bus stop, coffee shop, swimming pool. Learn the usual spelling and stress the first part in common examples.

Compound Sentence

A compound sentence joins two full clauses with and, but, or, or so. Use a comma before the linker when both sides are complete clauses.

Concession Clauses

Use although/even though before a full clause, and despite/in spite of before a noun or -ing form. They show contrast: the result happens anyway.

Conclusion Connectors

Use therefore, as a result, and consequently to show that one fact leads to a conclusion or result. Put the result after the connector.

Condition Clauses

Condition clauses show what must happen first: if, unless, provided that, as long as. Choose the connector by meaning, and use a comma when the condition comes first.

Condition Linkers Overview

Use if for a basic condition, unless for if not, provided that and as long as for required conditions, and otherwise for the result if the condition fails.

Conditional Time Clauses

Use present form after when, unless, as long as, and provided that, even for future meaning. Put will in the main clause.

Contrast Connectors

Use however and on the other hand to add a contrasting sentence. Use whereas and while to compare two full ideas in one sentence.

Modals for Deduction

Use must for a strong guess, might for a possible guess, and can't for an impossible one. These modals show what you conclude from clues now.

Despite / In Spite Of

Use despite or in spite of to show contrast before a noun phrase or -ing form: despite the rain, in spite of being tired.

Avoiding Double Negation

English normally uses one negative form per clause: I don't know anything or I know nothing, not I don't know nothing.

Each and Every

Use each for one member at a time and every for all members in general. Both take a singular noun and a singular verb.

-ed and -ing Adjectives

Use -ed adjectives for how someone feels and -ing adjectives for what causes the feeling. Compare the person with the thing, event, or situation.

Embedded Questions

Embedded questions use an opening phrase plus a question inside it. After if, whether, or a wh-word, keep statement word order.

It vs There as Dummy Subjects

Use it for weather, time, distance, and comments like It seems strange. Use there is/are to say that something exists or appears.

Few and Little

A few and a little mean some. Few and little mean almost none or not enough. Use few with countable plural nouns and little with uncountable nouns.

Future Continuous

Future Continuous shows an action that will be in progress at a specific future time. Form it with will be + verb-ing.

Future in the Past

Future in the Past shows a future event from a past viewpoint. Use would, was/were going to, and was/were about to based on meaning.

Genitive: 's vs Of

Use 's mostly with people and living things. Use of more often with things, abstract ideas, and longer noun phrases.

Gerund vs Infinitive

Some verbs take -ing, some take to + verb, and some allow both. With verbs like remember, stop, and try, the choice changes the meaning.

Get Passive

Get passive uses get + past participle to talk about events that happen to someone, often in informal English: He got fired.

Had Better

Had better gives strong advice and suggests a bad result if someone does not act. Use had better + base verb, or had better not + base verb.

Have / Get Something Done

Use have or get something done when another person does a job for you: I had my hair cut. Maria got her car repaired.

Indirect Questions

Indirect questions put the question inside another sentence. After the question word, use statement order: Do you know where she lives?

Intensifiers and Downtoners

Use intensifiers and downtoners to show how strong or weak a quality is: very/really make it stronger; pretty/fairly/rather, a bit, and slightly make it softer or smaller.

Less and Least

Use less for a lower degree in a comparison of two. Use the least for the minimum degree in a group or set.

Make and Let

Use make and let to talk about causing actions: make = force, let = allow. After both verbs, use object + base verb with no to.

Modal Perfect

Modal Perfect uses could, should, or would + have + past participle to look back at past situations: possibility, regret, or an imagined result.

Would and Used To for Past Habits

Use used to and would for repeated past behavior. Use used to for old states too; use would only for repeated actions, often with a past-time frame.

Narrative Tenses

Narrative tenses help you tell a story clearly: Past Simple for main events, Past Continuous for background, and Past Perfect for the earlier past.

Need To

Need to shows necessity: something is necessary to do. Use don't need to or needn't when there is no necessity.

Unless and Negative Conditions

Unless means if not. Use a present form after unless and put the future result in the main clause: Unless you hurry, you will be late.

Neither and Nor

Use neither ... nor to join two options that are both negative. Do not add another not, and let the verb follow the subject after nor.

No Backshift Rule

Do not backshift in reported speech when the statement is still true now or when you report it immediately. Keep the present form.

Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Non-defining relative clauses add extra information to a complete sentence. They use commas, and you keep the relative word.

None Of / Neither Of

Use none of for zero in a known group and neither of for two. Add of before them/us/the + noun, and watch the verb after the phrase.

Noun + Noun Compounds

A noun + noun compound names one thing with two nouns. The second noun is the main thing; the first noun shows the type, purpose, place, or content.

Noun Suffixes

Noun suffixes build nouns from adjectives and verbs. Use -ness, -tion, -ment, -ity, and -er when the sentence needs a thing, quality, result, or person.

Object Position

With two objects, English changes the order: give Maria the book or give the book to Maria. With it/them, use give it to Maria, not give Maria it.

Omitting Relative Pronoun

In a defining relative clause, you can drop who, which, or that when it is the object. Keep it when it is the subject or in comma clauses.

Passive Agent

Use by + agent in the passive when you want to name the doer: written by Shakespeare, built by engineers. Leave it out when the doer is unknown or not important.

Passive Continuous

Use Passive Continuous for actions in progress when the subject receives the action: is being repaired, was being made.

Passive vs Active Choice

Choose passive when the doer is unknown or not important. Choose active when you want to highlight who does the action.

Passive with Modals

Use passive with modals as modal + be + past participle: It must be done. The action or result matters more than the doer.

Passive with Perfect Tenses

Use perfect passive forms to focus on the result: has/have been done for a result now, had been done for a result before a past moment.

Past Perfect Simple

Past Perfect shows an action completed before another past action or past time: had + past participle.

Perception Verbs

After see, hear, and watch, use object + base verb for a whole action and object + verb-ing for an action in progress.

Perfect Aspect

Perfect forms connect an earlier action to now or to another past point. Use have/has/had + past participle.

Extended Place Prepositions

Use between for two, among for a group, beside for next to, opposite for across from, underneath for lower covered position, and throughout for every part of a place.

Extended Time Prepositions

Use each time preposition for a different time idea: deadline, end point, start point, duration, event, limit, or whole period.

Present Perfect Continuous

Present Perfect Continuous shows an activity that started before now and continued up to now. Use have/has been + verb-ing, often with for or since.

Present Perfect Time Expressions

Use Present Perfect with time expressions linked to now: recently, lately, so far, today, and this week when the time period is still open.

Present Perfect vs Past Simple

Use Present Perfect for unfinished time connected to now, and Past Simple for a finished past time. The time marker often decides which tense you need.

Purpose Clauses

Use to, in order to, and so that to say why someone does something. Choose to/in order to for the same subject and so that for a full clause.

Questions with Prepositions

In everyday English, prepositions often stay at the end of the question: Who are you talking to? In formal English, the preposition can move before whom: To whom are you talking?

Reason, Purpose and Result

Use because for reason, so or therefore for result, and to, in order to, or so that for purpose. Choose the connector by meaning first.

Reciprocal Pronouns

Use each other and one another for mutual actions: both sides do the action to the other side. Put them after the verb or preposition.

Relative Adverbs — Overview

Use where for place, when for time, and why after reason, then add a full clause. These link a noun to more information.

When and Where in Clauses

Use when after time words and where after place words to add a defining clause: the day when we met, the town where she grew up.

Relative Whose

Use whose to show possession inside a relative clause: the woman whose car was stolen. Put whose before a noun.

Reported Commands

Report commands with told/asked + person + to + verb. For negative commands, use not to + verb.

Reported Modals

When you report modal verbs after a past reporting verb, can often becomes could, may becomes might, and must often becomes had to. Some modals stay the same.

Reported Questions

Reported questions keep the question word or use if/whether, but the reported part uses statement word order: She asked where I lived.

Basic Reporting Verbs

Use say, tell, ask, promise, offer, and suggest in common reporting patterns. Watch the word after the verb: person, that-clause, noun, -ing, or to + verb.

Reporting Verbs — Advanced

Some reporting verbs need fixed patterns: suggest + -ing/that, warn + object + to, admit/deny + -ing, accuse + object + of + -ing.

Result Clauses

Use so ... that and such ... that to show that something was very strong and caused a result.

Second Conditional

Second Conditional talks about imaginary present or future situations: If + past form, would + base verb.

Have Got To

Have got to shows strong obligation in everyday English. Use have/has with the subject, and make negatives and questions without do.

Separable Phrasal Verbs

Separable phrasal verbs let the object move: turn off the TV / turn the TV off. But pronouns stay in the middle: turn it off.

Shall

Use shall mainly with I or we for offers and suggestions: Shall I help? Shall we start? In formal English, shall also appears in rules and official promises.

Simple vs Continuous Aspect

Use simple forms for habits, facts, and whole events. Use continuous forms for actions in progress and temporary situations.

Singular-Only and Plural-Only Nouns

Some nouns take only singular grammar: news, advice, furniture. Others take only plural grammar: scissors, trousers, police.

So / Neither / Nor Responses

Use so + auxiliary + subject after a positive statement, and neither/nor + auxiliary + subject after a negative one. Match the auxiliary and invert the order.

So and Such

Use so before adjectives and adverbs, but use such with noun phrases. Both can add strong emphasis and often lead to a result with that.

Subject Questions

Subject questions ask who or what does the action: Who called? No do, does, or did is needed.

Tag Questions

Tag questions add a short question to a statement to check or confirm: You are coming, aren't you? Match the auxiliary, switch positive and negative, and use a pronoun.

Third Conditional

Third Conditional talks about an unreal past situation and its unreal past result: If + past perfect, would have + past participle.

Two-Word Prepositions

Two-word prepositions work as one unit before a noun phrase: because of, due to, out of, instead of, according to. They show reason, replacement, motive, or source.

Used To vs Would

Use used to and would for repeated past actions. Only used to works for past states, and would needs a clear past context.

Verb + Object + -ing

Use see, hear, watch, or notice + object + -ing to describe an action you observed in progress: I saw Tom running.

Verb + Object + Infinitive

Use verb + object + to + base verb to talk about another person’s action: want her to come, ask him to wait.

Verb + Preposition Patterns

Some verbs need a fixed preposition: depend on, apologize for, result in, consist of. Learn each pair as one unit and use the right meaning with it.

Wish — Past

Use wish + past perfect to regret a finished past event: I wish I had left earlier. Use hadn't + past participle to regret an action you did.

Wish — Present

Use wish + a past form to talk about a present situation you want to be different now. Use could for missing ability or possibility now.

Would — Hypothetical and Polite

Would helps you talk about imagined results, polite requests, and repeated past actions. Use would + base verb.

Would Like / Prefer / Would Rather

Use would like for polite wants, prefer for general preferences, and would rather for a specific choice. Watch the pattern after each one: noun, to + verb, verb-ing, or base verb.

Would Rather

Would rather shows preference. Use would rather + base verb, add than for a second option, and say would rather not for the negative.

Causative Have and Get

Use have/get + object + past participle when someone else does a job for you: have the car repaired, get your hair cut.

Comparative Structures

Use these patterns to describe change and degree: the more... the more..., more and more, less and less, and by far the + superlative.

Comparison Clauses

Use than after comparatives, as ... as for equality, and as if / as though for appearance or unreal impression.

Count and Mass in Context

Some nouns can be countable or uncountable. The meaning decides the form: a paper = one newspaper, paper = material.

Determiner Combinations

Some determiners can stack, but the order is fixed: all my friends, both these books, such a day. Choose the pattern that matches the noun.

Discourse Markers

Discourse markers like well, anyway, actually, by the way, and in fact guide the listener through your message. They open, soften, redirect, correct, or strengthen a point.

Echo Questions

Echo questions repeat part of what someone just said to show surprise or check information: You met who? She did what?

Ellipsis and Substitution

Ellipsis and substitution help you avoid repeating words. Use short patterns like so can he, neither do I, or do so when the meaning is already clear.

End Position of Information

Put new, important, or long information near the end. Start lighter, finish with the part you want people to notice.

Fronting

Fronting moves an important word or phrase to the start of the sentence for emphasis: That book, I really enjoyed. The rest of the clause stays complete.

Future Perfect

Future Perfect shows that something will be finished before a future time or event. Form it with will have + past participle.

Hardly and Scarcely

Hardly and scarcely mean almost not. They already make the sentence negative, so do not add another negative word.

If Only

If only means a strong wish or regret. Use a past form for now, had + past participle for the past, and would for a change you want.

Impersonal Passive

Impersonal passive reports information formally without naming the source: It is said that... / He is said to....

It-Cleft Sentences

Use an it-cleft to strongly emphasize one part of a sentence: It was John who called. Put the focused part after be.

It, There and One for Reference

Use it to refer back, there to introduce existence, and one to replace a singular countable noun without repeating it.

Mixed Reporting Patterns

Explain, admit, and promise do not use the same pattern after the verb. Learn which one takes that-clause, to + -ing, or to + base verb.

Past Modals of Deduction

Use must have, might have, and can't have to guess about an earlier event from evidence now. They show strong certainty, possibility, or impossibility.

Needn't Have vs Didn't Need To

Needn't have done = the action happened, but it was unnecessary. Didn't need to do = there was no need, so the action did not happen.

Negative and Restrictive Adverbials

Fronted negative or restrictive adverbials like never, seldom, hardly, and only then create strong emphasis. When they come first, the clause usually inverts: auxiliary before subject.

Negative Questions

Negative questions start with a negative auxiliary: Isn't it...?, Didn't she...?. Use them for surprise, emphasis, or to check something you expect is true.

Not All and Not Every

Use not all and not every for partial negation. They mean some do and some do not, not zero.

Noun + Preposition Collocations

Some nouns need a fixed preposition after them: solution to, reason for, interest in, attitude towards. Learn the pair as one expression.

One and Ones

Use one and ones to avoid repeating a countable noun you already mentioned. One replaces singular nouns; ones replaces plural nouns.

Participle Clauses

Participle clauses shorten a full clause when the subject stays the same: Sitting by the window, Having finished, Shocked by the news.

Passive Reporting Structures

Use passive reporting structures like She is said to live abroad or The plan is expected to succeed to report information in a formal, neutral way.

Past Perfect Continuous

Past Perfect Continuous shows an activity that continued up to a past point: had been waiting, had been working. Use it when the focus is duration or ongoing activity before that past moment.

Perfect Continuous Aspect

Perfect Continuous shows an activity in progress over time up to now, a past moment, or a future moment. It connects duration to a reference point.

Preposition Dropping

Some time expressions drop in, on, or at: next week, last Friday, every day, tomorrow. Keep the preposition in normal phrases like on Monday or in July.

Preposition Stranding vs Fronting

English can leave a preposition at the end or move it before whom/which. End position is neutral; fronting sounds formal.

Prepositions in Relative Clauses

In relative clauses, a preposition can move before which/whom in formal English or stay at the end in neutral English: the chair on which I sat / the chair that I sat on.

Reduced Relative Clauses

Reduced relative clauses shorten a noun + relative clause. Use -ing for active meaning and a past participle for passive meaning.

Special Gerund / Infinitive Verbs

Some verbs change meaning with -ing or to + verb. Learn the pair as a meaning choice, not just a form choice.

Stative Passive

Be + past participle often names a current state, not an action. The window is broken talks about how the window is now, not about who broke it.

Three-Part Phrasal Verbs

Three-part phrasal verbs are fixed groups like put up with, look forward to, and run out of. Keep all three words together and put the object after the full group.

Unexpected Result

Use despite, in spite of, and though to show that one fact did not stop an unexpected result. Pick the connector by the form that follows it.

Who, Whom and Whose

Use who for the person doing the action, whom for the object in formal English, and whose for possession. In everyday object questions, who is often natural.

Wish + Would

Use wish + would to complain about repeated behavior and say what change you want: I wish you would stop. It often shows irritation.

Conditional Inversion

Conditional inversion makes formal conditionals without if: Had I known..., Were she here..., Should you need....

Future Perfect Continuous

Future Perfect Continuous shows how long an activity will have been in progress before a future point: by July, for two years, since Monday.

Inversion

In formal English, some fronted expressions change word order: auxiliary before subject. Use it for emphasis after starters like never, rarely, not only, and in so/neither/nor replies.

Inversion after Negative Adverbials

After a negative or limiting expression at the start, put the auxiliary before the subject: Never have I seen…, Only then did I realize….

Mixed Conditionals

Mixed conditionals connect an unreal cause in one time with a result in another time: past cause → result now, or state now → result in the past.

Relative Clauses with Prepositions

In formal relative clauses, the preposition can move before whom or which: the person to whom I spoke. This pattern is common in careful written English.

Wh-Cleft (Pseudo-Cleft)

A wh-cleft uses a wh-clause + be to spotlight the final part of the sentence. Example: What I need is a break.